Wedelia trilobata, Sphagneticola trilobata (Asteraceae) Creeping Daisy, Pilabhringraj

Wedelia trilobata, commonly known as creeping daisy, is a fast-growing, mat-forming perennial herb native to tropical America. It is now widely naturalised across the tropics of the world, including Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. This plant is a classic example of botanical duality. In many regions, it is considered an aggressive, invasive weed that smothers native flora with its dense ground cover. Yet, it has been a cornerstone of traditional medicine in the Caribbean, Central and South America, and parts of Asia for centuries, valued for its ability to treat wounds, pain, and inflammation .

1. Taxonomic Insights

Species: Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski

Family: Asteraceae (Daisy Family)

Genus: Sphagneticola

Basionym: Silphium trilobatum L.

Synonyms: Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitchc., Acmella trilobata (L.) R.K.Jansen

---

Botanical Description

Sphagneticola trilobata is a perennial, creeping, mat-forming herb that roots readily at the nodes. It has a prostrate growth habit with ascending tips that can reach up to 70 cm in height when climbing, with stems extending up to 2 metres in length .

Key Identification Features:

Stems are rounded, thin, and often reddish or purplish. Leaves are opposite, fleshy, glossy dark green above and paler beneath. They are obovate or oblong-obovate, measuring 3 to 18 cm in length, with margins typically bearing 3 prominent lobes but sometimes merely toothed or subentire . The leaves have a distinctive glossy appearance .

The inflorescence is a solitary, showy, yellow to orange-yellow flower head (capitulum), approximately 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, on a peduncle up to 10 cm long . Ray florets are yellow, numbering 8 to 13, 6 to 15 mm long, with 3-toothed tips . Disc florets are yellow, approximately 5 mm long. The fruit is a rugose achene, 4 to 5 mm long, with a pappus of short, irregular, united scales .

Distribution: The species is native to Mexico, Central and South America, and Trinidad . It is now naturalized throughout the tropics worldwide, including the West Indies, Africa, Australia, Pacific Islands, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, India, and parts of China .

Conservation Status: The plant is classified as not threatened, with a predicted extinction risk of Least Concern . However, it is listed among the world's worst invasive species due to its aggressive growth and spread .

---

Etymology

The generic name Sphagneticola is derived from the Latin "sphagnum" meaning moss and "dwelling", possibly referring to its preference for wet environments . The former genus name Wedelia honors Georg Wolfgang Wedel (1645-1721), Professor of Botany at Jena, Germany . The specific epithet trilobata means "three-lobed," describing the typically 3-lobed leaves characteristic of the plant.

---

2. Common Names

Scientific Name: Sphagneticola trilobata | English: Singapore Daisy, Creeping Daisy, Creeping Wedelia, Trailing Daisy, Bay Biscayne, Rabbit's Paw | Hindi: Pit putra, Pilabhringraj | Spanish: Botón de oro, Botoncillo, Guaco, Pata de lancha | Chinese: Nan Mei peng qi ju | Thai: Phak pet | Indonesian: Wedelia

---

3. Related Herbs from the Asteraceae Family

Wedelia chinensis (Chinese Wedelia): A close relative used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for treating the common cold, hepatitis, and infections. S. trilobata is sometimes used as a substitute for W. chinensis in Hong Kong .

Arnica montana (Arnica): A well-known medicinal plant used topically for bruises, sprains, and muscle pain. Both species share similar anti-inflammatory properties.

Echinacea purpurea (Purple Coneflower): A popular immunostimulant herb. Both plants are rich in bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties.

Calendula officinalis (Pot Marigold): Used extensively in wound healing and skin care formulations. S. trilobata shares this prominent wound-healing property.

The Asteraceae family is renowned for its production of sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes, and flavonoids, many of which have significant anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties.

---

4. Medicinal Uses: Summary of Primary and Secondary Actions

Primary Actions:

Wound Healing: Demonstrates exceptional wound healing activity, surpassing standard ointment in efficacy . It modulates inflammation by reducing TNF-α and MAPK levels and enhances proliferation via elevating collagen, smooth muscle actin, and forkhead protein levels .

Antimicrobial: Exhibits potent antibacterial activity against human and animal pathogens, including Streptococcus constellatus, Proteus sp., Staphylococcus sciuri, and Streptococcus dysgalactiae, with zones of inhibition exceeding those of control antibiotics . Also shows activity against pathogens causing acne .

Anti-inflammatory: Traditional use for inflammation validated by studies showing reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α) and MAPK levels . Kaurenoic acid, a key diterpene, reduces inflammation .

Antioxidant: Rich in terpenoids and phenolic compounds demonstrating significant free radical scavenging activity .

Insecticidal: Essential oil demonstrates 85-100% ovicidal activity against mosquito eggs (Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus) at 50 µL/L concentration . Leaf extract shows potent aphicidal activity (92.6% mortality) against Aphis gossypii, with an LD50 of 12.70 µg/L .

Anticancer: Non-polar fractions demonstrate powerful cytotoxic effects against skin carcinoma cell lines . Also shows cytotoxicity against leukemia cells .

Secondary Actions:

Antidiabetic: Traditional use for managing diabetes supported by studies .

Hepatoprotective: Traditional use for hepatitis and liver failure .

Antivenom: Traditional use for snakebites, requires further investigation .

Immunomodulatory: Used in Ayurvedic centers to cleanse the body and stimulate immunity .

Antispasmodic: Traditional use for muscle cramps and backache .

---

Medicinal Parts

The whole plant is used, with specific applications for leaves, stems, and flowers.

Leaves: The most commonly used part, applied as a poultice for wounds, cuts, sores, and inflammations . Leaf extract shows potent insecticidal and antimicrobial activities . The leaf essential oil is rich in active terpenes .

Stems and Aerial Parts: Used in decoctions for urinary tract infections, hepatitis, and white stool . Stem extract shows insecticidal activity .

Flowers: Traditionally used to control symptoms of diabetes . Show potent cytotoxic activity against skin cancer cells .

Whole Plant: Used in various traditional preparations for snakebites, kidney problems, wounds, muscle cramps, backache, menstrual problems, and respiratory conditions .

---

5. Phytochemistry

5.1 Terpenoids and Diterpenes (Major Bioactive Constituents)

The plant is exceptionally rich in terpenoids, particularly diterpenes, which constitute the major bioactive constituents. Diterpenes derived from the pimarenyl cation and ent-kaurane are key insecticidal compounds .

Kaurenoic acid (ent-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid): A major diterpene with significant anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and insecticidal activities . It reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation and pain .

Grandiflorenic acid (ent-kaur-9(11),16-dien-19-oic acid): A key wound healing diterpenoid that stimulates fibroblast cells .

Pimaric acid: A diterpene with insecticidal potential, present in significant quantities .

Palustric acid: A diterpene with insecticidal potential, present in high concentration .

Dehydroabietic acid: A diterpene identified in leaf extracts .

Trilobolide-6-O-isobutyrate: A sesquiterpene lactone with cytotoxic activity against lung cancer cell lines and good molecular docking scores for wound healing targets .

Ent-kaur-16-en-18-al: A diterpene identified in leaf extracts .

5.2 Sesquiterpenes

Espatulenol: A sesquiterpene alcohol identified in both leaf and stem extracts .

Junenol: A sesquiterpene identified in both leaf and stem extracts .

Aromadendrene: A sesquiterpene hydrocarbon .

Alpha-cyperone: A sesquiterpene ketone .

5.3 Sterols and Triterpenes

Stigmasterol: A phytosterol with anti-inflammatory and cholesterol-lowering properties .

Beta-Amyrin: A triterpene with anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective properties .

Alpha-Amyrin: A triterpene with anti-inflammatory properties .

Beta-Amyrone: A triterpenoid ketone .

Beta-Amyrin acetate: An acetylated triterpene .

Friedelanol: A triterpenoid alcohol .

Squalene: A triterpene hydrocarbon precursor to sterols .

Alpha-spinasterol acetate: A sterol acetate .

5.4 Compounds from Essential Oil Identified by GC-MS Analysis

Alpha-Pinene: The primary component of the essential oil, representing 84.57%, likely contributing significantly to insecticidal activity .

Other essential oil components: Various mono- and sesquiterpenes contribute to the plant's antimicrobial and insecticidal properties.

5.5 Compounds from Leaf and Stem Extracts Identified by GC-MS Analysis

Leaf extract identified 32 compounds, including:

Neophytadiene: A diterpenoid with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties .

Phytol: A diterpenoid with antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities .

Palmitic acid (and esters): Fatty acids with antimicrobial, antioxidant, and hypocholesterolemic activities .

Linoleic acid (and esters): Essential fatty acids with anti-inflammatory and skin health benefits .

Stigmasterol: Sterol with anti-inflammatory properties .

Beta-Amyrin: Triterpene with anti-inflammatory properties .

5.6 Other Compounds

Flavonoids: Present, contributing to the plant's antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties.

Phenolic Acids: Present, contributing to antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Kaurenoic acid and grandiflorenic acid are among the most studied.

---

6. Mechanisms of Action

6.1 Wound Healing

Sphagneticola trilobata promotes wound healing by modulating multiple phases of the healing process .

Anti-inflammatory: The extract reduces levels of pro-inflammatory mediators, specifically tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) . This reduction in inflammation is crucial for initiating the proliferative phase of healing.

Proliferation: The extract enhances collagen content (Col-1), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and forkhead box protein (FOXO1), all markers of fibroblast proliferation and tissue remodeling . Grandiflorenic acid and other diterpenoids stimulate fibroblast cells, promoting the formation of granulation tissue and re-epithelialization .

Mechanism: In vivo full-thickness wound models demonstrated that the total extract's efficacy surpassed the effectiveness of the reference ointment . Trilobolide-6-O-isobutyrate displayed the best docking scores for selected target receptors, indicating its potential role in receptor-mediated wound healing .

6.2 Antimicrobial Activity

The plant exhibits potent bactericidal activity against a range of pathogens .

Inhibition mechanism: The extract shows bactericidal activity (MBC/MIC ratio ≤ 2) against all tested bacterial strains, indicating it kills bacteria rather than merely inhibiting growth . Zones of inhibition exceeded those of control antibiotics, suggesting strong antibacterial potential.

Molecular Docking: In silico studies identified key compounds with strong binding affinity to microbial targets, including Phospholipase C (binding energy up to -8.3 Kcal/mol), Vbrk sensor domain (up to -6.4 Kcal/mol), and Sortase A protein (up to -6.8 Kcal/mol), indicating potential mechanisms of action .

6.3 Insecticidal Activity

The plant's insecticidal effects are attributed to multiple compounds and appear to be organ-specific .

Ovicide: Essential oil demonstrates 85-100% ovicidal activity against mosquito eggs at 50 µL/L concentration, comparable to the positive control temephos .

Larvicide: Essential oil shows strong larvicidal activity with LC50 values of 51.66 µL/L (Anopheles), 129.58 µL/L (Aedes), and 25.88 µL/L (Culex) within 24 hours . Toxicity studies revealed no adverse effects on tested natural predators, indicating selective toxicity .

Aphicide: Ethanolic leaf extract demonstrated significantly higher mortality (LD50 = 12.70 µg/L) compared to stem extract (LD50 = 63.65 µg/L), achieving 92.6% mortality by 72 hours against Aphis gossypii . The active compounds are diterpenes derived from the pimarenyl cation, with ent-kaurane diterpenes playing a key role .

Mechanism: Alpha-Pinene (84.57% of essential oil) likely contributes significantly to the observed insecticidal activity .

6.4 Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Activity

Diterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones are the primary bioactive compounds.

Anti-inflammatory: Kaurenoic acid reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators and pathways, including NF-κB and MAPK .

Anticancer: Non-polar fractions show potent cytotoxicity against skin carcinoma cell lines (A-431). A specific compound mixture of kaurenoic acid and grandiflorenic acid within this fraction exhibited stronger cytotoxicity against cancer cells . The extract induces apoptosis in leukemia cells through suppression of BCR/ABL . Trilobolide-6-O-isobutyrate acts by inducing oxidative stress and apoptosis-like processes .

---

7. Traditional and Ethnobotanical Uses

7.1 Wound Healing and Skin Disorders

Formulation: Leaf poultice or crushed leaves.

Preparation and Use: In the Caribbean, Central America, and Vietnam, the plant was used as a poultice to treat wounds, cuts, sores, swelling, and inflammations . Leaves are applied directly to affected areas. In Nicaragua, fruit, leaf, and stem preparations were used to relieve stings and bites .

Scientific Validation: Strong evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrates significant wound healing activity, with the total extract's efficacy surpassing the reference ointment .

7.2 Respiratory Conditions

Formulation: Boiled leaf mixture or infusion.

Preparation and Use: In South America, the Caribbean, and Nicaragua, the plant was used to treat chest colds and bronchitis . In Guyana, a mixture of boiled leaves with Commelina nudiflora or Hibiscus sabdariffa was used to treat coughs and colds .

Scientific Validation: Traditional use is supported by the plant's anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties .

7.3 Liver and Kidney Health

Formulation: Aerial part decoction.

Preparation and Use: In Suriname, a decoction of aerial parts was used to treat infections of the urinary tract, hepatitis, and white stool . In Hong Kong, the plant was used as a substitute for W. chinensis, a Chinese medicine for hepatitis and infections .

Scientific Validation: Hepatoprotective activity is suggested by traditional use and supported by the plant's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties .

7.4 Diabetes Management

Formulation: Flower extract or whole plant preparation.

Preparation and Use: Flowers were utilized to control symptoms of diabetes . The plant is also used in Ayurvedic centers for body cleansing and immunity stimulation .

Scientific Validation: Antidiabetic activity has been reported, though further investigation is needed .

7.5 Menstrual Problems

Formulation: Whole plant infusion or decoction.

Preparation and Use: Used to treat menstrual problems such as amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and post-partum hemorrhage in Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, Central America, and Saint Lucia .

Scientific Validation: Traditional use is documented, but scientific validation of this specific application is limited.

7.6 Other Traditional Uses

Snakebites: Leaves were traditionally used to treat snakebites in Nicaragua . Antivenom activity requires further investigation .

Muscle Spasms: Used for muscle cramps and backache .

Kidney Problems: Traditional use for kidney problems .

Purges: Used as a purgative .

Infections: Used for various infections, including urinary tract infections .

---

8. Healing Recipes, Teas, Decoctions, and Culinary Uses

8.1 Wound Healing Leaf Poultice

Purpose: To heal wounds, cuts, sores, and reduce inflammation.

Preparation and Use: Wash a handful of fresh Sphagneticola trilobata leaves thoroughly. Crush or grind the leaves into a smooth paste. Apply the paste directly to the affected area and cover with a clean cloth or bandage. Replace the poultice twice daily.

Scientific Validation: Research confirms that the extract accelerates wound closure, modulates inflammation, and enhances proliferation, surpassing the effectiveness of standard ointment .

---

8.2 Decoction for Hepatitis and Urinary Tract Infections

Purpose: To support liver and urinary tract health.

Preparation and Use: Take 20 grams of dried Sphagneticola trilobata aerial parts or a generous handful of fresh plant. Boil it in 500 millilitres of water for 15 minutes. Strain the decoction and allow it to cool. Take 100 millilitres of the decoction twice daily to support liver function and manage urinary complaints.

Scientific Validation: Traditional use for hepatitis and urinary infections is documented in Suriname and Hong Kong . Hepatoprotective and antimicrobial activities support this use.

---

8.3 Infusion for Respiratory Health

Purpose: To treat coughs, colds, and bronchitis.

Preparation and Use: Take a handful of fresh Sphagneticola trilobata leaves (and optionally Commelina nudiflora or Hibiscus sabdariffa as used traditionally in Guyana). Steep in 250 millilitres of hot water for 10 minutes. Strain and drink warm twice daily.

Scientific Validation: Traditional use for chest colds and bronchitis is documented in South America and the Caribbean . Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties support this use.

---

8.4 Antidiabetic Flower Infusion

Purpose: To help manage blood sugar levels.

Preparation and Use: Take a handful of Sphagneticola trilobata flowers. Steep them in 250 millilitres of hot water for 5 to 10 minutes. Strain and drink this tea twice daily.

Scientific Validation: Traditional use of flowers for controlling diabetes is documented . Antidiabetic activity has been reported, though further investigation is needed .

---

9. Clinical Significance and Evidence Summary

9.1 Evidence Hierarchy by Activity

Wound Healing: Strong evidence from in vitro and in vivo animal studies. The plant improved wound closure percentage, modulated inflammation (reduction in TNF-α and MAPK), and enhanced proliferation (elevating collagen, α-SMA, and FOXO1). The total extract's efficacy surpassed the effectiveness of the reference ointment . The non-polar fraction demonstrated significant activity against skin cancer cell lines . Human clinical trials are lacking.

Antimicrobial: Moderate to strong evidence from in vitro studies. The extract showed maximum zones of inhibition exceeding control antibiotics against Streptococcus constellatus (20.5 ± 0.5 mm), Proteus sp. (20.166 ± 0.763 mm), Staphylococcus sciuri (27 ± 1 mm), and Streptococcus dysgalactiae (22.166 ± 0.763 mm). The extract was bactericidal against all tested bacterial strains . Clinical trials are lacking.

Insecticidal: Strong evidence from in vitro and laboratory studies. Essential oil showed 85-100% ovicidal activity at 50 µL/L against mosquito eggs, similar to temephos. Strong larvicidal activity with LC50 values of 51.66, 129.58, and 25.88 µL/L against Anopheles, Aedes, and Culex species respectively. No adverse effects on natural predators . Leaf extract showed potent aphicidal activity (LD50 = 12.70 µg/L) with 92.6% mortality against Aphis gossypii . Field applications require further study.

Anti-inflammatory: Moderate evidence from in vitro and animal studies. The plant reduces TNF-α and MAPK levels . Kaurenoic acid reduces inflammation and pain . Human clinical trials are lacking.

Anticancer: Moderate evidence from in vitro studies. Non-polar fraction showed powerful cytotoxic effects against skin carcinoma cell lines . The mixture of kaurenoic acid and grandiflorenic acid exhibited strong cytotoxicity . Cytotoxic against leukemia cells . In vivo studies and clinical trials are lacking.

Antidiabetic: Preliminary evidence from traditional use and some studies . Human clinical trials are lacking.

Hepatoprotective: Preliminary evidence from traditional use . Scientific studies are limited.

Antivenom: Preliminary evidence from traditional use . Requires further investigation.

---

9.2 Chronic Toxicity Study Data

A 90-day chronic toxicity study was conducted in healthy Wistar rats using 80% ethanolic leaf extract at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight. Key findings:

Safety Assessment: No signs or symptoms of chronic toxicity observed. No mortality observed .

Hematological Parameters: No alteration in hemoglobin, hematocrit, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, neutrophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, or platelet counts .

Biochemical Parameters: No alteration in alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), or creatinine levels .

Histological Assessment: No alterations in histological features of hepatic, pancreatic, or renal tissues .

Conclusion: The leaf extract from S. trilobata exerts non-chronic toxicity in rats and can be used safely as a traditional medicine or diet complement without any effect on hepatic and renal functions .

---

10. Safety and Toxicology

10.1 Toxicity Profile

Acute Toxicity: No mortality or toxic symptoms observed in chronic toxicity studies .

Subchronic Toxicity: 90-day administration at 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight showed no signs of chronic toxicity, no mortality, and no alterations in body weight, organ weight, hematological parameters, biochemical parameters, or histology of hepatic, pancreatic, and renal tissues .

Overall Assessment: The plant is generally considered safe for use as a traditional medicine and dietary supplement based on animal studies. The favorable safety profile supports its further investigation in human clinical trials .

10.2 Invasive Potential and Environmental Considerations

Sphagneticola trilobata is listed among the world's worst invasive species . It spreads rapidly, forms dense ground cover, and outcompetes native vegetation, preventing regeneration. It is a serious weed in agricultural lands, urban areas, along waterways, and in coastal vegetation .

Important Recommendation: Cultivation should be carefully managed to prevent escape and spread into natural areas. The plant is widely available as an ornamental, which may further its spread .

10.3 Contraindications and Precautions

Pregnancy and Lactation: Insufficient safety data exists for human use. Pregnant or nursing women should consult a healthcare provider before use.

Known Hypersensitivity: Individuals with known hypersensitivity to Asteraceae plants (e.g., ragweed, chamomile, marigold) should exercise caution as cross-reactivity may occur.

Autoimmune Conditions: The immunomodulatory effects could theoretically affect autoimmune conditions. Caution is advised.

Surgery: Due to potential effects on wound healing and possible antiplatelet activity, discontinuation 2 weeks prior to scheduled surgery may be prudent (though no direct data exists).

10.4 Potential Drug Interactions

Antidiabetic Medications (Metformin, Sulphonylureas, Insulin): Potential additive glucose-lowering effect. Recommendation: Monitor blood glucose and consider dose adjustment of antidiabetic medications.

Antihypertensive Medications: Potential additive vasodilatory effect. Recommendation: Monitor blood pressure.

Immunosuppressants: The immunomodulatory effects could potentially interfere with immunosuppressant therapy. Caution is advised.

Anticoagulants and Antiplatelet Drugs (Warfarin, Aspirin, Clopidogrel): Potential mild antiplatelet effects. Recommendation: Exercise caution and monitor INR if used with warfarin.

---

11. Quality Control Parameters

11.1 Marker Compounds for Standardisation

Key compounds suitable as quality markers include Kaurenoic acid, Grandiflorenic acid, Stigmasterol, Alpha-Pinene (for essential oil), and Trilobolide-6-O-isobutyrate . These compounds provide a foundation for standardising extracts and ensuring consistent quality.

11.2 Recommended Analytical Methods

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array detection (DAD) or liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) can be used for quantification of marker compounds . Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is recommended for analysis of essential oil composition . The total phenolic content assay using the Folin-Ciocalteu method is recommended for determining total phenolic content. The total flavonoid content assay using aluminium chloride colorimetric method is recommended for determining total flavonoid content.

11.3 Suggested Specifications

For the leaf extract, the total phenolic content should be above a specified minimum. The wound healing activity should be validated using in vitro scratch assays. Antimicrobial activity should be confirmed against standard bacterial strains.

---

12. Cultivation and Sustainability

12.1 Growth Requirements

Climate: The plant thrives in tropical and subtropical climates .

Habitat: It prefers damp, open and disturbed areas, including roadsides, gardens, parks, drainage channels, urban bushland, and footpaths .

Altitude: It grows from sea level to 1,465 metres elevation .

Soil: The plant is adaptable to various soil types but prefers damp conditions. It is drought-tolerant and can grow in both sun and shade .

Propagation: It is easily propagated from stem cuttings, as it roots readily at the nodes. Seeds are often sterile, so vegetative propagation is the primary method .

12.2 Invasive Potential and Management

IUCN Status: Listed among the "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species" . Spread through garden waste disposal and intentional planting. It is a serious weed in agricultural lands, along waterways, and in coastal vegetation. It forms dense ground cover that outcompetes native species . If cultivated, the plant must be contained and managed to prevent escape into natural areas. Alternative non-invasive species should be considered for ornamental purposes.

---

13. Research Gaps and Future Directions

13.1 Critical Research Gaps

Human Clinical Trials: Comprehensive clinical trials are lacking for most therapeutic claims, including wound healing, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic effects .

Pharmacokinetics: Limited data exists on absorption, metabolism, and bioavailability of key compounds, particularly diterpenes. Understanding pharmacokinetics is essential for developing standardised formulations.

Standardised Formulations: There is a need for stable, standardised phytopharmaceutical preparations with consistent quality and efficacy.

Mechanistic Studies: Further elucidation of molecular pathways is needed, particularly for anticancer, antimicrobial, and antivenom mechanisms .

Antivenom Activity: The plant's traditional use for snakebites requires further investigation .

13.2 Future Research Priorities

Wound Healing: Phase I and Phase II clinical trials for wound healing efficacy to establish dosing and safety in human populations.

Antimicrobial: Clinical studies on antimicrobial efficacy, particularly against skin and soft tissue infections.

Insecticidal: Field applications of essential oil and extracts as a viable mosquito control product without harming natural predators .

Cancer: In vivo studies and clinical trials for skin cancer and other cancer types.

Green Synthesis: Further exploration of the plant's role in green synthesis of nanoparticles .

---

14. Commercial Applications

14.1 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Potential

Sphagneticola trilobata has significant potential for development as a therapeutic agent for wound healing , antimicrobial applications , and insect control . It can be developed as topical formulations for wound care, standardised extracts for dietary supplements, and insecticidal products.

14.2 Product Development Potential

Wound Healing Creams: Topical formulations containing S. trilobata extracts for treating wounds, cuts, and sores .

Antimicrobial Ointments: Formulations for treating skin infections .

Insecticidal Products: Essential oil-based larvicides for mosquito control . Agricultural insecticides for aphid control .

Green Synthesis: Nanoparticle synthesis using plant extracts for antimicrobial and anticancer applications .

---

15. Related Plants for Further Study

Wedelia chinensis (Chinese Wedelia): A close relative used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for hepatitis, colds, and infections. S. trilobata is sometimes used as a substitute .

Acmella oleracea (Paracress): A related plant in the Asteraceae family known for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, used for toothache and mouth ulcers.

Arnica montana (Arnica): A well-known medicinal plant used topically for bruises, sprains, and muscle pain. Both species share similar anti-inflammatory properties.

Calendula officinalis (Pot Marigold): Used extensively in wound healing and skin care formulations. S. trilobata shares this prominent wound-healing property.

Echinacea purpurea (Purple Coneflower): A popular immunostimulant herb. Both plants are rich in bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties.

---

16. Reference Literature

Primary Research

Ali, M.T., Al-Mahdy, D.A., El Fishawy, A.M., Salama, A., Al-Karmalawy, A.A., Otify, A.M. (2025). Phytochemical investigation, role in wound healing process and cytotoxicity of Sphagneticola trilobata: In vitro, in vivo and in silico approach. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

Ali, M.T., Al-Mahdy, D.A., El Fishawy, A.M., Otify, A.M. (2024). Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski: An updated exploration of its traditional applications, taxonomy, phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties. South African Journal of Botany.

Shimu, S.S., et al. (2025). Unveiling the antimicrobial potentials of Sphagneticola trilobata: an integrated experimental and computer aided investigation. Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics.

Environmental Science and Pollution Research. (2025). Chemical composition, insecticidal activity and non-target effects of Sphagneticola trilobata essential oil.

PMC. (2025). Metabolomic Analysis Uncovers the Presence of Pimarenyl Cation-Derived Diterpenes as Insecticidal Constituents of Sphagneticola trilobata. Plants.

Suchantabud, A., Katisart, T., Talubmook, C. (2017). Chronic Toxicity of Leaf Extract from Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski. Pharmacognosy Journal.

Key Monographs and Floras

Plants of the World Online. Kew Science.

Flora of the Cayman Islands. (2012). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

WeedScan Australia. Singapore Daisy.

iPlant 植物智. 南美蟛蜞菊.

---

17. Disclaimer

Sphagneticola trilobata is generally considered safe based on animal studies, but caution is advised due to its invasive potential.

This information is for educational and academic purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Pregnant or nursing women should consult a healthcare professional before use.

Individuals on medication, especially antidiabetics, antihypertensives, and immunosuppressants, should consult a qualified healthcare practitioner before use.

Do not discontinue prescribed medications without consulting your doctor.

Proper identification is crucial to avoid confusion with potentially toxic species.

Always consult a qualified healthcare practitioner before using any plant for medicinal purposes.

Be aware of the invasive nature of this plant. If cultivating, ensure it is contained and does not spread to natural areas.